Background:
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) such as neglect, abuse, or household problems are known to affect mental health later in life. However, there is still limited research on how ACEs affect young people in African countries, especially in places with fewer resources. In Kenya, many children experience different forms of adversity, so it is important to check whether commonly used ACE tools work well in this context and how ACEs relate to mental health problems. This study examined whether the ACE questionnaire is a reliable and valid tool for Kenyan adolescents. It also looked at how ACEs are linked to depression, anxiety, bullying, and basic background characteristics.
Methods:
We collected data from 2,842 adolescents and young adults aged 11 to 25 years from 42 secondary schools in four Kenyan counties. We used statistical methods (Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis) to see how the ACE questions group together. We checked reliability using Cronbach’s alpha. We then used linear mixed-effects models to test how ACE scores relate to sociodemographic factors, bullying, and symptoms of depression (PHQ-8) and anxiety (GAD-7).
Results:
A three-factor model appeared first, but the data fit better with a two-factor model (CFI = 0.962, TLI = 0.948, RMSEA = 0.033, SRMR = 0.028). Higher ACE scores were linked with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and bullying. Bullying had a stronger relationship with ACEs among male students.
Implications:
This is the first study to validate the ACE questionnaire among Kenyan adolescents. The results show that childhood adversity is closely linked to poor mental health and experiences of bullying. These findings highlight the need for trauma-informed support and more research on protective factors that can help reduce the impact of ACEs in low- and middle-income countries.
